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Background
Parkinson disease is a slowly progressive neurodegenerative disease, usually affecting older patients. The diagnosis is made after exclusion of other diseases or toxins which may produce similar clinical manifestations. Recently, the plight of Michael J. Fox has brought attention to this devastating disease and how some forms may affect relatively young individuals like himself. The classic symptoms include the following:
Diminished facial expression
Stooped posture
Slowness of involuntary movement
Festinating gait
Rigidity
Pill-rolling tremor
SYNONYMS Idiopathic Parkinson disease
Paralysis agitans
DISEASE ASSOCIATIONS CHARACTERIZATION Manometric abnormalities of the oesophagus in patients with Parkinson's disease.
Castell JA, Johnston BT, Colcher A, Li Q, Gideon RM, Castell DO.
Department of Medicine, Graduate Hospital, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
Neurogastroenterol Motil 2001 Aug;13(4):361-4 Abstract quote
Dysphagia in Parkinson's disease (PD) is known to correlate with abnormalities of oropharyngeal function. Oesophageal abnormalities have not been previously demonstrated to correlate with dysphagia.
The aim of the study was to determine if motor dysfunction of the oesophageal body correlates with dysphagia or disease severity in PD. Twenty-two patients with PD were assessed for the severity of their dysphagia (scale of 1-7) and severity of PD (Hoehn and Yahr scale 1-4). All underwent oesophageal manometry. Dysphagia was present daily in 10 patients (45%). Parkinson's disease was graded as severe (Hoehn and Yahr > or =3) in eight (36%) patients. Oesophageal manometry was abnormal in 16 (73%) patients. Thirteen patients had either complete aperistalsis or multiple simultaneous contractions (diffuse oesophageal spasm). These findings were significantly more common in patients with daily dysphagia (90% vs. 33%; P < 0.005), and were not related to duration or severity of PD.
We conclude that the presence of aperistalsis or multiple simultaneous contractions in the oesophagus does correlate with dysphagia and is independent of PD severity or duration. This may reflect selective involvement of either the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus or the oesophageal myenteric plexus.
Gaucher disease and parkinsonism: a phenotypic and genotypic characterization.
Tayebi N, Callahan M, Madike V, Stubblefield BK, Orvisky E, Krasnewich D, Fillano JJ, Sidransky E.
Clinical Neuroscience Branch, NIMH, 49 Convent Drive MSC405, 49/B1EE16, Bethesda, MD 20892-4405, USA.
Mol Genet Metab 2001 Aug;73(4):313-21 Abstract quote
Among the many phenotypes associated with Gaucher disease, the inherited deficiency of glucocerebrosidase, are reports of patients with parkinsonian symptoms. The basis for this association is unknown, but could be due to alterations in the gene or gene region. The human glucocerebrosidase gene, located on chromosome 1q21, has a nearby pseudogene that shares 96% identity. Immediately adjacent to the glucocerebrosidase pseudogene is a convergently transcribed gene, metaxin, which has a pseudogene that is located just downstream to the glucocerebrosidase gene.
We describe a patient with mild Gaucher disease but impaired horizontal saccadic eye movements who developed a tremor at age 42, followed by rapid deterioration of her gait. A pallidotomy at age 47 was unsuccessful. Her motor and cognitive deterioration progressed despite enzyme replacement therapy. Sequencing of the glucocerebrosidase gene identified mutations L444P and D409H. Southern blot analysis using the enzyme SspI showed that the maternal allele had an additional 17-kb band. PCR amplifications and sequencing of this fragment demonstrated a duplication which included the glucocerebrosidase pseudogene, metaxin gene, and a pseudometaxin/metaxin fusion.
Gene alterations associated with this novel rearrangement, resulting from a crossover between the gene for metaxin and its pseudogene, could contribute to the atypical phenotype encountered in this patient.
PATHOGENESIS CHARACTERIZATION Degeneration of the dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra Leads to reduction of striatal dopamine content
Severity of motor syndrome is proportional to dopamine deficiencyAssociation of Single-Nucleotide Polymorphisms of the Tau Gene With Late-Onset Parkinson Disease.
Martin ER, Scott WK, Nance MA, Watts RL, Hubble JP, Koller WC, Lyons K, Pahwa R, Stern MB, Colcher A, Hiner BC, Jankovic J, Ondo WG, Allen FH Jr, Goetz CG, Small GW, Masterman D, Mastaglia F, Laing NG, Stajich JM, Ribble RC, Booze MW, Rogala A, Hauser MA, Zhang F, Gibson RA, Middleton LT, Roses AD, Haines JL, Scott BL, Pericak-Vance MA, Vance JM.
Center for Human Genetics, Box 2903, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710.
JAMA 2001 Nov 14;286(18):2245-2250 Abstract quote
CONTEXT: The human tau gene, which promotes assembly of neuronal microtubules, has been associated with several rare neurologic diseases that clinically include parkinsonian features. We recently observed linkage in idiopathic Parkinson disease (PD) to a region on chromosome 17q21 that contains the tau gene. These factors make tau a good candidate for investigation as a susceptibility gene for idiopathic PD, the most common form of the disease.
OBJECTIVE: To investigate whether the tau gene is involved in idiopathic PD.
DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: Among a sample of 1056 individuals from 235 families selected from 13 clinical centers in the United States and Australia and from a family ascertainment core center, we tested 5 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) within the tau gene for association with PD, using family-based tests of association. Both affected (n = 426) and unaffected (n = 579) family members were included; 51 individuals had unclear PD status. Analyses were conducted to test individual SNPs and SNP haplotypes within the tau gene.
MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Family-based tests of association, calculated using asymptotic distributions.
RESULTS: Analysis of association between the SNPs and PD yielded significant evidence of association for 3 of the 5 SNPs tested: SNP 3, P =.03; SNP 9i, P =.04; and SNP 11, P =.04. The 2 other SNPs did not show evidence of significant association (SNP 9ii, P =.11, and SNP 9iii, P =.87). Strong evidence of association was found with haplotype analysis, with a positive association with one haplotype (P =.009) and a negative association with another haplotype (P =.007). Substantial linkage disequilibrium (P<.001) was detected between 4 of the 5 SNPs (SNPs 3, 9i, 9ii, and 11).
CONCLUSIONS: This integrated approach of genetic linkage and positional association analyses implicates tau as a susceptibility gene for idiopathic PD.
Complete Genomic Screen in Parkinson Disease: Evidence for Multiple Genes.
Scott WK, Nance MA, Watts RL, Hubble JP, Koller WC, Lyons K, Pahwa R, Stern MB, Colcher A, Hiner BC, Jankovic J, Ondo WG, Allen FH Jr, Goetz CG, Small GW, Masterman D, Mastaglia F, Laing NG, Stajich JM, Slotterbeck B, Booze MW, Ribble RC, Rampersaud E, West SG, Gibson RA, Middleton LT, Roses AD, Haines JL, Scott BL, Vance JM, Pericak-Vance MA.
Center for Human Genetics, Box 3445, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710.
JAMA 2001 Nov 14;286(18):2239-2244 Abstract quote
CONTEXT: The relative contribution of genes vs environment in idiopathic Parkinson disease (PD) is controversial. Although genetic studies have identified 2 genes in which mutations cause rare single-gene variants of PD and observational studies have suggested a genetic component, twin studies have suggested that little genetic contribution exists in the common forms of PD.
OBJECTIVE: To identify genetic risk factors for idiopathic PD.
DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: Genetic linkage study conducted 1995-2000 in which a complete genomic screen (n = 344 markers) was performed in 174 families with multiple individuals diagnosed as having idiopathic PD, identified through probands in 13 clinic populations in the continental United States and Australia. A total of 870 family members were studied: 378 diagnosed as having PD, 379 unaffected by PD, and 113 with unclear status.
MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Logarithm of odds (lod) scores generated from parametric and nonparametric genetic linkage analysis.
RESULTS: Two-point parametric maximum parametric lod score (MLOD) and multipoint nonparametric lod score (LOD) linkage analysis detected significant evidence for linkage to 5 distinct chromosomal regions: chromosome 6 in the parkin gene (MLOD = 5.07; LOD = 5.47) in families with at least 1 individual with PD onset at younger than 40 years, chromosomes 17q (MLOD = 2.28; LOD = 2.62), 8p (MLOD = 2.01; LOD = 2.22), and 5q (MLOD = 2.39; LOD = 1.50) overall and in families with late-onset PD, and chromosome 9q (MLOD = 1.52; LOD = 2.59) in families with both levodopa-responsive and levodopa-nonresponsive patients.
CONCLUSIONS: Our data suggest that the parkin gene is important in early-onset PD and that multiple genetic factors may be important in the development of idiopathic late-onset PD.
Lewy bodies and parkinsonism in families with parkin mutations.
Farrer M, Chan P, Chen R, Tan L, Lincoln S, Hernandez D, Forno L, Gwinn-Hardy K, Petrucelli L, Hussey J, Singleton A, Tanner C, Hardy J, Langston JW.
Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic Jacksonville, FL, USA.
Comment in: Ann Neurol. 2001 Sep;50(3):283-5. UI: 21442516 Abstract quote
Previous work has established that compound mutations and homozygous loss of function of the parkin gene cause early-onset, autosomal recessive parkinsonism. Classically, this disease has been associated with loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta and locus ceruleus, without Lewy body pathology.
We have sequenced the parkin gene of 38 patients with early-onset Parkinson's disease (<41 years). Two probands with mutations were followed up. Clinical evaluation of their families was performed, blinded to both genetic and pathological findings. Chromosome 6q25.2-27 haplotype analysis was carried out independently of the trait; parkin gene expression was examined at both the RNA and protein levels. Haplotype analysis of these families revealed a common chromosome 6, with a novel 40 bp exon 3 deletion that cosegregated with disease. In the proband of the smaller kindred, an exon 7 R275W substitution was identified in addition to the exon 3 deletion; RNA analysis demonstrated that the mutations were on alternate transcripts. However, Lewy body pathology typical of idiopathic Parkinson's disease was found at autopsy in the proband from the smaller kindred.
These data suggest that compound heterozygous parkin mutations and loss of parkin protein may lead to early-onset parkinsonism with Lewy body pathology, while a hemizygous mutation may confer increased susceptibility to typical Parkinson's disease.
LABORATORY/RADIOLOGY/OTHER CHARACTERIZATION RADIOLOGIC Evaluation of early-stage Parkinson's disease with 99mTc-TRODAT-1 imaging.
Huang WS, Lin SZ, Lin JC, Wey SP, Ting G, Liu RS.
Department of Nuclear Medicine, National Defense Medical Center, Tri-Service General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan.
J Nucl Med 2001 Sep;42(9):1303-8 Abstract quote
Parkinson's disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by a selective loss of dopamine in the striatum. Problems remain in the accurate diagnosis of Parkinson's disease. A 99mTc-labeled tropane derivative that binds to dopamine transporter with high selectivity is [2-[[2-[[[3-(4-chlorophenyl)-8-methyl-8-azabicyclo[3,2,1]oct-2-yl]methyl](2-mercaptoethyl)amino]ethyl]amino]ethanethiolato(3-)-N2,N2',S2,S2']oxo-[1R-(exo-exo)] (TRODAT-1).
The purpose of this study was to investigate the potential usefulness of 99mTc-TRODAT-1 imaging in the evaluation of patients with early-stage Parkinson's disease.
METHODS: Thirty-four patients with early-stage idiopathic Parkinson's disease were recruited. For all patients, the Parkinson's disease was stage 2 or less as assessed by the Hoehn and Yahr scale. Seventeen age-matched healthy volunteers (8 men, 9 women) served as controls. 99mTc-TRODAT-1 was prepared from a lyophilized kit. Brain SPECT imaging was performed between 165 and 195 min after injection, using a double-head camera equipped with fanbeam collimators. Specific uptake in the striatum and its subregions, including the putamen and caudate nucleus, was calculated and compared with that of the other sides and of healthy volunteers.
RESULTS: A continuous reduction in specific striatal uptake of 99mTc-TRODAT-1 with increasing disease severity was found in Parkinson's disease patients (control vs. stage I vs. stage II, 1.98 vs. 1.62 vs. 1.22, respectively, P < 0.01). The changes were magnified by measurement of specific putaminal uptake (control vs. stage I vs. stage II, 1.81 vs. 1.27 vs. 0.94, respectively, P < 0.01). The mean values of specific putaminal uptake contralateral to the more affected limbs were significantly decreased compared with the ipsilateral sides in both stage I and stage II groups (1.02 vs. 1.49 for stage I and 0.73 vs. 1.14 for stage II, P < 0.01). Moreover, a significant loss of putaminal uptake ipsilateral to the symptoms was found in the stage I group compared with the healthy volunteers (1.49 vs. 1.81, P < 0.01). The difference became greater when the posterior putaminal uptakes were compared. No remarkable adverse reactions were found in either healthy volunteers or Parkinson's disease patients during or after imaging.
CONCLUSION: For clinical practice, 99mTc-TRODAT-1 may serve as a useful imaging agent for the early detection of Parkinson's disease.
Dopamine Transporter Brain Imaging to Assess the Effects of Pramipexole vs Levodopa on Parkinson Disease Progression
Parkinson Study Group
JAMA. 2002;287:1653-1661 Abstract quote
Context
Pramipexole and levodopa are effective medications to treat motor symptoms of early Parkinson disease (PD). In vitro and animal studies suggest that pramipexole may protect and that levodopa may either protect or damage dopamine neurons. Neuroimaging offers the potential of an objective biomarker of dopamine neuron degeneration in PD patients.Objective
To compare rates of dopamine neuron degeneration after initial treatment with pramipexole or levodopa in early PD by means of dopamine transporter imaging using single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) with 2-carboxymethoxy-3(4-iodophenyl)tropane (-CIT) labeled with iodine 123.Design
Substudy of a parallel-group, double-blind randomized clinical trial.Setting and Patients
Eighty-two patients with early PD who were recruited at 17 clinical sites in the United States and Canada and required dopaminergic therapy to treat emerging disability, enrolled between November 1996 and August 1997.Interventions
Patients were randomly assigned to receive pramipexole, 0.5 mg 3 times per day with levodopa placebo (n = 42), or carbidopa/levodopa, 25/100 mg 3 times per day with pramipexole placebo (n = 40). For patients with residual disability, the dosage was escalated during the first 10 weeks, and subsequently, open-label levodopa could be added. After 24 months of follow-up, the dosage of study drug could be further modified.Main Outcome Measures
The primary outcome variable was the percentage change from baseline in striatal [123I]-CIT uptake after 46 months. The percentage changes and absolute changes in striatal, putamen, and caudate [123I]-CIT uptake after 22 and 34 months were also assessed. Clinical severity of PD was assessed using the Unified Parkinson Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS) 12 hours off anti-PD medications.Results
Sequential SPECT imaging showed a decline in mean (SD) [123I]-CIT striatal uptake from baseline of 10.3% (9.8%) at 22 months, 15.3% (12.8%) at 34 months, and 20.7% (14.4%) at 46 monthsapproximately 5.2% per year. The mean (SD) percentage loss in striatal [123I]-CIT uptake from baseline was significantly reduced in the pramipexole group compared with the levodopa group: 7.1% (9.0%) vs 13.5% (9.6%) at 22 months (P = .004); 10.9% (11.8%) vs 19.6% (12.4%) at 34 months (P = .009); and 16.0% (13.3%) vs 25.5% (14.1%) at 46 months (P = .01). The percentage loss from baseline in striatal [123I]-CIT uptake was correlated with the change from baseline in UPDRS at the 46-month evaluation (r = - 0.40; P = .001).Conclusions
Patients initially treated with pramipexole demonstrated a reduction in loss of striatal [123I]-CIT uptake, a marker of dopamine neuron degeneration, compared with those initially treated with levodopa, during a 46-month period. These imaging data highlight the need to further compare imaging and clinical end points of PD progression in long-term studies.LABORATORY Increase in peripheral CD4 bright+ CD8 dull+ T cells in Parkinson disease.
Hisanaga K, Asagi M, Itoyama Y, Iwasaki Y.
Department of Neurology, Miyagi National Hospital, 100 Kassenhara, Takase, Yamamoto, Watari, Miyagi 989-2202, Japan.
Arch Neurol 2001 Oct;58(10):1580-3 Abstract quote
BACKGROUND: Immune abnormalities are known to be involved in the pathogenesis of sporadic Parkinson disease.
OBJECTIVE: To examine whether abnormalities in peripheral lymphocytes exist in Parkinson disease.
METHODS: Immune mediators, including CD1a, CD3, CD4, CD8, CD45RO, and Fas (CD95), were examined in peripheral lymphocytes of patients by 3-color flow cytometry. RESULTS: Patients with Parkinson disease displayed a significantly greater population of circulating CD3+ CD4 bright+ CD8 dull+ lymphocytes than age-matched control subjects (P =.005) and patients with cerebrovascular disease (P =.002). The increase in these cells appeared to continue for at least 17 months. These T cells also expressed CD45RO and Fas, markers for activated T cells, while CD1a, a marker for thymic T cells, was negative, suggesting that these cells are mature T cells with immune activities.
CONCLUSIONS: As CD4+ CD8+ T cells are known to increase after some specific viral infections, the continuous increase in CD4 bright+ CD8 dull+ T cells shown here may indicate postinfectious immune abnormalities that are possibly associated with the pathogenesis of this slowly progressive, multifactorial neurodegenerative disease.
GROSS APPEARANCE/
CLINICAL VARIANTSCHARACTERIZATION General Pallor of the substantia nigra and locus ceruleus VARIANTS Acute parkinsonian syndrome secondary to MPTP exposure (1-methyl-4-phenyl-1, 2, 3, 6-tetrahydropyridine) This is a contaminant in synthesis of psychoactive meperidine analogs
HISTOLOGICAL TYPES CHARACTERIZATION General Loss of pigmented catecholaminergic neurons with associated gliosis
Lewy bodies in remaining neurons characterized by single or multiple, intracytoplasmic, eosinophilic, round to elongated neurons with dense core surrounded by pale haloVARIANTS An autopsy case of postencephalitic parkinsonism of von Economo type: some new observations concerning neurofibrillary tangles and astrocytic tangles.
Haraguchi T, Ishizu H, Terada S, Takehisa Y, Tanabe Y, Nishinaka T, Kawai K, Kuroda S, Komoto Y, Namba M.
Department of Neuropsychiatry, Okayama University Medical School, Japan.
Neuropathology 2000 Jun;20(2):143-8 Abstract quote
An autopsied case of postencephalitic parkinsonism of von Economo type with a 71-year duration is reported.
Several cases of postencephalitic parkinsonism of von Economo type have been reported in Japan but this is the first reported case from western Japan. The patient was a Japanese man who was 74 years of age at the time of death. He developed encephalitis of unknown etiology at the age of 3 years. The first symptom was antisocial behavior, which developed at 30 years of age. At the age of 40 years, the patient showed progressive parkinsonism.
Neuropathological findings disclosed marked neuronal loss with gliosis in the substantia nigra, locus ceruleus, and raphe nuclei, as well as the appearance of neurofibrillary tangles in the aforementioned areas. There were also widespread tuft-shaped astrocytes (Tu-SA) in the central nervous system, including the thalamus. Tuft-shaped astrocytes are considered to represent non-reactive astrocytes because the distributions of neurofibrillary tangles (NFT) and Tu-SA are clearly different.
Therefore, the primary astrocytic lesions in postencephalitic parkinsonism of von Economo type may be more widespread. Ultrastructurally, the Tu-SA consisted of straight filaments, 15 nm in width, which formed tight bundles. Ultrastructurally, NFF in this case revealed paired helical filaments but straight filaments, 15 nm in width, which were also found in the neurons of the substantia nigra.
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS KEY DIFFERENTIATING FEATURES Diseases that affect the nigrostriatal system Idiopathic Parkinson disease
Progressive supranuclear palsy
Corticobasal degeneration
Postencephalitic Parkinson (after influenza pandemic of 1914-1918)
Multiple system atrophy which includes:
Striatonigral degeneration
Olivopontocerebellar atrophy
Shy-Drager syndromeSubstantia nigra in progressive supranuclear palsy, corticobasal degeneration, and parkinsonism-dementia complex of Guam: specific pathological features.
Oyanagi K, Tsuchiya K, Yamazaki M, Ikeda K.
Department of Neuropathology, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute for Neuroscience, Fuchu, Japan.
J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2001 Apr;60(4):393-402 Abstract quote
Disease-specific findings in the substantia nigra were examined in cases of progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP), corticobasal degeneration (CBD), and parkinsonism-dementia complex of Guam (PDC); diseases in which the patients exhibit dementia and parkinsonism, with neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) and glial tangles composed of hyperphosphorylated tau.
Loss of pigmented neurons was extremely severe in these 3 diseases, and decrease of the nonpigmented neurons was severe in PSP and CBD. On the other hand, in PDC the decrease of the nonpigmented neurons was different in each patient. Topographically, in PSP the nonpigmented neurons were particularly depleted in the ventral part and relative preservation of the pigmented neurons was observed in the medial part at the level examined. Many NFTs were observed in PDC. Although the number of NFTs was small, many pretangles were seen in the neurons in CBD. Granular and hazy astrocytic inclusions were identified exclusively in PDC. Numerous argyrophilic neuropile threads were identified in CBD and PSP, but these were few in PDC. Many foamy spheroid bodies as well as coiled bodies were observed in PSP and CBD, but only a few were observed in PDC.
In conclusion, PDC is a disease that is distinctly different from PSP and CBD. It is possible to differentiate between PSP and CBD by the occurrence of many pretangles in CBD, but some similarities between these 2 diseases indicate the existence of common pathological mechanisms.
PROGNOSIS AND TREATMENT CHARACTERIZATION PROGNOSIS Functional and Staging Systems Blinded positron emission tomography study of dopamine cell implantation for Parkinson's disease.
Nakamura T, Dhawan V, Chaly T, Fukuda M, Ma Y, Breeze R, Greene P, Fahn S, Freed C, Eidelberg D.
Functional Brain Imaging Laboratory, North Shore-Long Island Jewish Research Institute, Manhasset, NY 11030, USA.
Ann Neurol 2001 Aug;50(2):181-7 Abstract quote
We assessed nigrostriatal dopaminergic function in Parkinson's disease (PD) patients undergoing a double-blind, placebo-controlled surgical trial of embryonic dopamine cell implantation.
Forty PD patients underwent positron emission tomography (PET) imaging with [18F]fluorodopa (FDOPA) prior to randomization to transplantation or placebo surgery. The 39 surviving patients were rescanned one year following surgery. Images were quantified by investigators blinded to treatment status and clinical outcome. Following unblinding, we determined the effects of treatment status and age on the interval changes in FDOPA/PET signal. Blinded observers detected a significant increase in FDOPA uptake in the putamen of the group receiving implants compared to the placebo surgery patients (40.3%). Increases in putamen FDOPA uptake were similar in both younger (age < or = 60 years) and older (age > 60 years) transplant recipients. Significant decrements in putamen uptake were evident in younger placebo-operated patients (-6.5%) but not in their older counterparts. Correlations between the PET changes and clinical outcome were significant only in the younger patient subgroup (r = 0.58).
The findings suggest that patient age does not influence graft viability or development in the first postoperative year. However, host age may influence the time course of the downstream functional changes that are needed for clinical benefit to occur.
SURVIVAL 10-15% develop dementia with increasing age
Some patients may develop Alzheimer's while others develop diffuse Lewy body diseaseTREATMENT J Neurosurg 1997;86:931-942
Clinical improvement in patients with idiopathic disease and MPTP induced diseaseEvidence for long-term survival and function of dopaminergic grafts in progressive Parkinson's disease.
Lindvall O, Sawle G, Widner H, Rothwell JC, Bjorklund A, Brooks D, Brundin P, Frackowiak R, Marsden CD, Odin P, et al.
Department of Neurology, University of Lund, Sweden.
Ann Neurol 1994 Feb;35(2):172-80 Abstract quote
Two patients with idiopathic Parkinson's disease (Patients 3 and 4 in our series) were followed up to 3 years after grafting of human embryonic dopamine-rich mesencephalic tissue unilaterally into the putamen.
During the first postoperative year both patients showed significant amelioration of parkinsonian symptoms and increased 6-L-[18F]-fluorodopa uptake in the grafted putamen, as assessed with positron emission tomography. Three years after grafting the patients still exhibited increased fluorodopa uptake in the grafted putamen and significant clinical improvements, evidenced by a reduction of the severity of symptoms and of the time spent in the "off" phase, and by a prolongation of the effect of a single dose of L-dopa. Between 1 and 3 years after surgery, Patient 3 showed only minor changes of parkinsonian symptoms on the side contralateral to the graft, whereas there was a worsening on the ipsilateral side. Fluorodopa uptake decreased in the nongrafted putamen but was unchanged in the grafted putamen. Patient 4 continued to improve after the first postoperative year and L-dopa was withdrawn after 32 months. The reduction of parkinsonian symptoms on the side contralateral to the graft became more pronounced between 1 and 3 years after surgery. Fluorodopa uptake further increased in the grafted putamen, whereas no change was detected on the non-grafted side.
These results indicate that grafts of embryonic dopamine neurons can survive, grow, and exert functional effects up to at least 3 years after surgery in the parkinsonian brain, despite an ongoing disease process leading to degeneration of the intrinsic dopamine system.
Long-term evaluation of bilateral fetal nigral transplantation in Parkinson disease.
Hauser RA, Freeman TB, Snow BJ, Nauert M, Gauger L, Kordower JH, Olanow CW.
Department of Neurology, University of South Florida, Tampa 33606, USA.
Arch Neurol 1999 Feb;56(2):179-87 Abstract quote
. BACKGROUND: Parkinson disease (PD) is associated with a progressive loss of nigrostriatal dopamine neurons. Medication therapy provides adequate control of symptoms for several years, but long-term treatment is complicated by progressive disability and the development of motor fluctuations and dyskinesias. In animal models of PD, fetal nigral transplants have been shown to survive grafting into the striatum, provide extensive striatal reinnervation, and improve motor function. In patients with PD, cell survival and clinical benefit have been observed following fetal nigral grafting, but results have been inconsistent.
OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the safety and efficacy of bilateral fetal nigral transplantation into the postcommissural putamen in patients with advanced PD complicated by motor fluctuations and dyskinesias.
PATIENTS AND METHODS: Six patients with advanced PD underwent bilateral fetal nigral transplantation. Each patient received solid grafts derived from donors aged 6 1/2 to 9 weeks after conception stereotactically implanted into the postcommissural putamen using 3 to 4 donors per side. Cyclosporine was administered for approximately 6 months to provide immune suppression. Clinical evaluations included the Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS), Schwab-England Activities of Daily Living Scale, and timed tests of motor function conducted during both the "off' and "on" states at baseline and at 1, 3, 6, 9, 12, 18, and 24 months following transplantation. Percentage of time off and percentage of time on with and without dyskinesia were recorded at half-hour intervals using home diaries during the week prior to each evaluation. 18F-fluorodopa positron emission tomographic scans were performed at baseline, and at 6 months and 1 year following transplantation.
RESULTS: Patients have been followed up for a mean+/-SD of 20.5+/-5.5 months. Complications related to surgery were mild and transient. Activities of daily living, motor, and total (activities of daily living plus motor) UPDRS scores during the off state improved significantly (P<.05, Wilcoxon signed rank test) at final visit in comparison with baseline. Mean total UPDRS off score improved 32%, and each patient experienced at least a 19% improvement. Mean percentage of time on without dyskinesia during the waking day improved from 22% to 60% (P<.05). Mean putamenal fluorodopa uptake on positron emission tomography increased significantly at 6 and 12 months in comparison with baseline (P<.001, 2-tailed t test). This increase correlated with clinical improvement. Two patients died 18 months after transplantation from causes unrelated to the surgical procedure. In both cases, histopathological examination showed robust survival of tyrosine hydroxylase immunoreactive cells and abundant reinnervation of the postcommissural putamen.
CONCLUSIONS: Fetal nigral tissue can be transplanted into the postcommissural putamen bilaterally in patients with advanced PD safely and with little morbidity. In this open-label pilot study we observed consistent long-term clinical benefit and increased fluorodopa uptake on positron emission tomography. Clinical improvement appears to be related to the survival and function of transplanted fetal tissue.
Cell survival and clinical outcome following intrastriatal transplantation in Parkinson disease.
Hagell P, Brundin P.
Department of Clinical Neuroscience, University Hospital, Lund University, Sweden
J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2001 Aug;60(8):741-52 Abstract quote
Intrastriatal transplantation of embryonic dopaminergic neurons is currently explored as a restorative cell therapy for Parkinson disease (PD).
Clinical results have varied, probably due to differences in transplantation methodology and patient selection. In this review, we assess clinical trials and autopsy findings in grafted PD patients and suggest that a minimum number of surviving dopaminergic neurons is required for a favorable outcome. Restoration of [18F]-fluorodopa uptake in the putamen to about 50% of the normal mean seems necessary for moderate to marked clinical benefit to occur. Some studies indicate that this may require mesencephalic tissue from 3-5 human embryos implanted into each hemisphere. The volume, density and pattern of fiber outgrowth and reinnervation, as well as functional integration and dopamine release. are postulated as additional important factors for an optimal clinical outcome. For neural transplantation to become a feasible therapeutic alternative in PD, graft survival must be increased and the need for multiple donors of human embryonic tissue substantially decreased or alternate sources of donor tissue developed.
Donor cells derived from alternative sources should demonstrate features comparable to those associated with successful implantation of human embryonic tissue before clinical trials are considered.
SURGICAL Outcome of unilateral pallidotomy in advanced Parkinson's disease: cohort study of 32 patients.
de Bie RM, Schuurman PR, Bosch DA, de Haan RJ, Schmand B, Speelman JD;
Dutch Pallidotomy Study Group. Department of Neurology (H2-222), Academic Medical Centre, PO Box 22700, University of Amsterdam, 1100 DE Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2001 Sep;71(3):375-82 Abstract quote
OBJECTIVES: In a randomised trial to study the efficacy of unilateral pallidotomy in patients with advanced Parkinson's disease, patients having pallidotomy within 1 month after randomisation were compared with patients having pallidotomy 6 months after the primary outcome assessment. Of the 37 patients enrolled 32 had a unilateral pallidotomy. The follow up study of these patients is presented to report (1) clinical outcome; (2) adverse effects; (3) cognitive and behavioural effects; (4) relation between lesion location and outcome; and (5) preoperative patient characteristics predictive for good outcome.
METHODS: Outcome measures were the motor section of the unified Parkinson's disease rating scale (UPDRS), levodopa induced dyskinesias, disability, quality of life, and a comprehensive neuropsychological assessment. Multivariate logistic regression was used to identify preoperative patient characteristics independently associated with good outcome.
RESULTS: Off phase assessment showed a reduction in parkinsonism from 49 to 36.5 points on the UPDRS 6 months after surgery. Improvements were also demonstrated for activities of daily living and quality of life. In the on phase dyskinesias were reduced. All effects lasted up to 12 months after surgery. Three patients had major permanent adverse effects. Besides worsening of verbal fluency after left sided surgery, systematic cognitive deterioration was not detected. Patients taking less than 1000 levodopa equivalent units (LEU)/day were more likely to improve.
CONCLUSIONS: The positive effects of unilateral pallidotomy are stable up to 1 year after surgery. Patients taking less than 1000 LEU per day were most likely to improve.
MEDICAL A multicenter randomized controlled trial of remacemide hydrochloride as monotherapy for PD.
Parkinson Study Group
Neurology 2000 Apr 25;54(8):1583-8 Abstract quote
BACKGROUND: Preclinical evidence suggests that manipulation of the glutamatergic system may provide an alternative strategy for therapeutic intervention in PD. Remacemide hydrochloride is a low affinity NMDA channel blocker that might improve parkinsonian symptoms by modulating glutamatergic overactivity in the basal ganglia or slow worsening by decreasing excitotoxicity.
METHODS: The authors performed a multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group, dose-ranging study of remacemide in patients with early PD who were not yet receiving levodopa or dopamine agonists. The primary objective was to assess the short-term tolerability and safety of three dosage levels of remacemide. Two hundred patients were randomized to receive either remacemide 150 mg, 300 mg, or 600 mg, or matching placebo daily for 5 weeks.
RESULTS: Significantly fewer patients receiving remacemide 600 mg daily were able to tolerate 5 weeks of their assigned treatment on a BID schedule compared with patients receiving placebo (64% versus 94%, p = 0.0002). Most patients who experienced intolerable side effects on the BID schedule, however, could tolerate the same daily dosage on a QID schedule. The most common adverse events were dizziness and nausea. There were no serious adverse events or clinically significant treatment-related changes in vital signs, laboratory values, or electrocardiograms. There was no evidence of improvement in PD signs or symptoms associated with remacemide monotherapy.
CONCLUSION: Remacemide was generally well tolerated and safe in this 5-week trial. There was no evidence for a symptomatic effect of remacemide monotherapy in patients with early PD. Based on its favorable safety profile and several animal studies, further studies of remacemide are warranted as symptomatic therapy in levodopa-treated patients and as a neuroprotective agent.
Evaluation of dyskinesias in a pilot, randomized, placebo-controlled trial of remacemide in advanced Parkinson disease.
Parkinson Study Group.
Arch Neurol 2001 Oct;58(10):1660-8 Abstract quote
CONTEXT: Long-term levodopa therapy for Parkinson disease commonly results in motor complications including "on-off" fluctuations and dyskinesias, but it is still unclear how best to assess treatment effects on dyskinesias in clinical trials.
OBJECTIVE: To compare several methods of rating levodopa-induced dyskinesias to evaluate the effect of remacemide hydrochloride treatment in patients with advanced Parkinson disease.
DESIGN: Two-week multicenter randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group study.
SETTING: Five academic sites of the Parkinson Study Group.
PATIENTS: Thirty-nine subjects at least 30 years old with idiopathic Parkinson disease and disabling dyskinesias.
INTERVENTIONS: Randomly received daily doses of 150 mg, 300 mg, or 600 mg of remacemide hydrochloride or matching placebo for 2 weeks.
MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The dyskinesia rating scales used were the Modified Goetz Dyskinesia Rating scale (MGDRS), a newly created Lang-Fahn Activities of Daily Living Dyskinesia scale (LFADLDS), and diary dyskinesia ratings.
RESULTS: Patient and investigator diaries showed excellent agreement in dyskinesia ratings. The MGDRS score correlated with clinic diary ratings of the percentage of "on" time with dyskinesias, and the LFADLDS score correlated with home and clinic diary assessments of percentage of on time with severe dyskinesias. The MGDRS score did not correlate highly with the LFADLDS score. This pilot study also validated previous results demonstrating the safety and tolerability of remacemide treatment for advanced Parkinson disease but did not result in any demonstrable improvement or worsening in dyskinesia measures.
CONCLUSIONS: Diaries may provide a valid means of evaluating dyskinesias in clinical trials for Parkinson disease, but there remain other aspects of dyskinesias, as assessed by the MGDRS and LFADLDS, that are not reflected in diary ratings.
A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of subcutaneously injected apomorphine for parkinsonian off-state events.
Dewey RB Jr, Hutton JT, LeWitt PA, Factor SA.
Department of Neurology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd, Dallas, TX 75390-9036, USA.
Arch Neurol 2001 Sep;58(9):1385-92 Abstract quote
OBJECTIVE: To assess the safety and efficacy of subcutaneous apomorphine hydrochloride administration for off-state (poor motor function) periods in patients with Parkinson disease with motor fluctuations under both inpatient titration and outpatient therapeutic conditions.
PATIENTS AND METHODS: Twenty-nine patients had advanced Parkinson disease with 2 hours or more off time despite aggressive oral therapy. Patients randomly received titrated doses of subcutaneous apomorphine hydrochloride (2-10 mg, n = 20) or pH-matched vehicle placebo (n = 9) during an inpatient and 1-month outpatient phase. A change in the United Parkinson Disease Rating Scale motor score 20 minutes after inpatient dosing during a practically defined off-state event and the percentage of injections successfully aborting off-state events were the primary inpatient and outpatient efficacy factors.
RESULTS: The average (SEM) levodopa equivalent dose of apomorphine hydrochloride was 5.4 +/- 0.5 mg and the mean placebo dose was 1.0 mL. Mean inpatient United Parkinson Disease Rating Scale motor scores were reduced by 23.9 and 0.1 points (62% and 1%) by apomorphine treatment and placebo, respectively (P<.001). The mean percentage of outpatient injections resulting in successful abortion of off-state events was 95% for apomorphine and 23% for placebo (P<.001). Inpatient response was significantly correlated with and predictive of outpatient efficacy (P<.001). The levodopa dose was not predictive of the apomorphine dose requirement. Frequent adverse events included dyskinesia, yawning, and injection site reactions.
CONCLUSION: Apomorphine by intermittent subcutaneous injection is effective and safe for outpatient use to reverse off-state events that occur despite optimized oral therapy.
Robbin's Pathologic Basis of Disease. 6th Edition. Cotran R. etal. WB Saunders. 1999.
Last Updated 4/4/2002
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